THE RETURN OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
It is becoming acceptable again to talk of computers performing human tasks such as problem-solving and pattern-recognition.
A. After years in the wilderness, the term 'artificial intelligence' (AI) seems poised to make a comeback. AI was big in the 1980s but vanished in the 1990s. It re-entered public consciousness with the release of Al, a movie about a robot boy. This has ignited a public debate about AI, but the term is also being used once more within the computer industry. Researchers, executives and marketing people are now using the expression without irony or inverted commas. And it is not always hype. The term is being applied, with some justification, to products that depend on technology that was originally developed by AI researchers.
Admittedly, the rehabilitation of the term has a long way to go, and some firms still prefer to avoid using it. But the fact that others are starting to use it again suggests that AI has moved on from being seen as an over-ambitious and under-achieving field of research.
B. The field was launched, and the term 'artificial intelligence' coined, at a conference in 1956 by a group of researchers that included Marvin Minsky, John McCarthy, Herbert Simon and Alan Newell, all of whom went on to become leading figures in the field. The expression provided an attractive but informative name for a research programme that encompassed such previously disparate fields as operations research, cybernetics, logic and computer science. The goal they shared was an attempt to capture or mimic human abilities using machines. That said, different groups of researchers attacked different problems, from speech recognition to chess playing, in different ways; AI unified the field in name only. But it was a term that captured the public imagination.
C. Most researchers agree that AI peaked around 1985. A public reared on science-fiction movies and excited by the growing power of computers had high expectations. For years, AI researchers had implied that a breakthrough was just around the corner. Marvin Minsky said in 1967 that within a generation the problem of creating'artificial intelligence' would be substantially solved. Prototypes of medical-diagnosis programs and speech recognition software appeared to be making progress. It proved to be a false dawn. Thinking computers and household robots failed to materialise, and a backlash ensued. `There was undue optimism in the early 1980s; says David Leaky, a researcher at Indiana University. 'Then when people realised these were hard problems, there was retrenchment. By the late 1980s, the term AI was being avoided by many researchers, who opted instead to align themselves with specific sub-disciplines such as neural networks, agent technology, case-based reasoning, and so on.
D. Ironically, in some ways AI was a victim of its own success. Whenever an apparently mundane problem was solved, such as building a system that could land an aircraft unattended, the problem was deemed not to have been AI in the first plate. 'If it works, it can't be AI; as Dr Leaky characterises it. The effect of repeatedly moving the goal-posts in this way was that AI came to refer to 'blue-sky' research that was still years away from commercialisation. Researchers joked that AI stood for `almost implemented'. Meanwhile, the technologies that made it onto the market, such as speech recognition, language translation and decision-support software, were no longer regarded as AI. Yet all three once fell well within the umbrella of AI research.
E. But the tide may now be turning, according to Dr Leake. HNC Software of San Diego, backed by a government agency, reckon that their new approach to artificial intelligence is the most powerful and promising approach ever discovered. HNC claim that their system, based on a cluster of 30 processors, could be used to spot camouflaged vehicles on a battlefield or extract a voice signal from a noisy background - tasks humans can do well, but computers cannot. 'Whether or not their technology lives up to the claims made for it, the fact that HNC are emphasising the use of AI is itself an interesting development; says Dr Leaky.
F. Another factor that may boost the prospects for AI in the near future is that investors are now looking for firms using clever technology, rather than just a clever business model, to differentiate themselves. In particular, the problem of information overload, exacerbated by the growth of e-mail and the explosion in the number of web pages, means there are plenty of opportunities for new technologies to help filter and categorise information - classic AI problems. That may mean that more artificial intelligence companies will start to emerge to meet this challenge.
G. The 1969 film, 2001: A Space Odyssey, featured an intelligent computer called HAL 9000. As well as understanding and speaking English, HAL could play chess and even learned to lipread. HAL thus encapsulated the optimism of the 1960s that intelligent computers would be widespread by 2001. But 2001 has been and gone, and there is still no sign of a HAL-like computer. Individual systems can play chess or transcribe speech, but a general theory of machine intelligence still remains elusive. It may be, however, that the comparison with HAL no longer seems quite so important, and AI can now be judged by what it can do, rather than by how well it matches up to a 30-year-old science-fiction film. 'People are beginning to realise that there are impressive things that these systems can do; says Dr Leake hopefully.
Questions 27-31
Reading Passage 81 has seven paragraphs, A-G.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter A-G in boxes 27-31 on your answer sheet.
NB. You may use any letter more than once.
27. how AI might have a military impact
28. the fact that AI brings together a range of separate research areas
29. the reason why AI has become a common topic of conversation again
30. how AI could help deal with difficulties related to the amount of information available electronically
31. where the expression AI was first used
Questions 32-37
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 81?
In boxes 32-37 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
32. The researchers who launched the field of AI had worked together on other projects in the past.
33. In 1985, AI was at its lowest point.
34. Research into agent technology was more costly than research into neural networks.
35. Applications of AI have already had a degree of success.
36. The problems waiting to be solved by AI have not changed since 1967.
37. The film 2001: A Space Odyssey reflected contemporary ideas about the potential of AI computers.
Questions 38-40
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write your answers in boxes 38-40 on your answer sheet.
38. According to researchers, in the late 1980s, there was a feeling that
A. a general theory of AI would never be developed.
B. original expectations of AI may not have been justified.
C. a wide range of applications was close to fruition.
D. more powerful computers were the key to further progress.
39. In Dr Leake's opinion, the reputation of AI suffered as a result of
A. changing perceptions.
B. premature implementation.
C. poorly planned projects.
D. commercial pressures.
40. The prospects for AI may benefit from
A. existing AI applications.
B. new business models.
C. orders from Internet-only companies.
D. new investment priorities.
LỜI GIẢI CHI TIẾT
Question 1: information about how non-scientists’ assumptions about intelligence influence their behaviour towards others
Solution: Keywords: non-scientist’s assumptions, intelligence, influence, behaviour towards others,
Now, the answer is in paragraph B where the writer gives reference to the assumptions (theories) of non-scientists such as parents, people in job
interviews and other general people. Let’s take a look at lines 4-7, “For example, parent’s implicit theories of their children’s language development will determine at what ages they will be willing to make various corrections in their children’s speech. More generally, parents’ implicit theories of intelligence will determine at what ages they believe their children are ready to perform various cognitive tasks.”
Here, behaviour with others is a kind of cognitive task
Answer: B
Question 2: a reference to lack of clarity over the definition of intelligence
Solution: Keywords for the question: lack of clarity, definition of intelligence,
Now, scan in the first of paragraph A. Take a close look. “. .. . no one knows what it actually is. This chapter addresses how people conceptualize intelligence, whatever it may actually be.”
Here, the lines suggest that our idea about the definition of intelligence will be clear reading this chapter.
Answer: A
Question 3: the point that a researcher’s implicit and explicit theories may be very different
Solution: Keywords: researcher’s, implicit, explicit, theories, may be, different,
Now, read the first lines of paragraph D. Here, the author states, “…implicit theories can be useful when an investigator suspects that existing explicit theories are wrong or misleading.” This means implicit theories may be right when explicit theories are wrong.
Answer: D
Questions 4-6: Yes, No, Not Given
Question 4: Slow language development in children is likely to prove disappointing to their parents.
Solution: Keywords: slow language development, likely to prove, disappointing,
Now, scan in paragraph B, the reference of ‘language development in children’ ; but there is no mention of any slow or fast language learning.
Answer: NOT GIVEN
Question 5: People’s expectations of what children should gain from education are universal.
Solution: Keywords: expectations, what children should gain, education, universal
Now, scan in paragraph E. Take a look at lines 2-6, “. … . .people have expectations for intellectual performances that differ for children of different ages. How these expectations differ is part a function of culture. For example, expectations for children who participate in Western-style schooling are almost certain to be different from those for children who do not participate in such schooling.” Here, these lines indicate that expectations of what children should achieve, learn or gain for education are not universal; it differs for their age and the culture in which they are brought up.”
Answer: NO
Question 6: Scholars may discuss theories without fully understanding each other.
Solution: Keywords: scholars, may discuss, without, understanding,
Now, scan in the paragraph J, lines 4-6 … .Until scholars are able to discuss their implicit theories and thus their assumptions, they are likely to miss the point of what others are saying when discussing their explicit theories and their data.” So, it is noted here that scholars may consult with each other about the theories sometimes without fully understanding each other’s point.
Answer: YES
Questions 7-13: Matching Statements with Correct Theory
Question 7: It is desirable for the same possibilities to be open to everyone.
Solution: Keywords: desirable, same possibilities, open to everyone.
Now, the answer in found in Section H, in the very opening line, “The Jeffersonian view is that people should have equal opportunities, …. ….” Here, people should have = desirable, equal opportunities = same opportunities.
Answer: B (Jeffersonian)
Question 8: No section of society should have preferential treatment at the expense of another.
Solution: Keywords: no section, preferential treatment, expense of another.
Now, the last line of Section I has the answer. The author writes, “. .. In this view, we do not need or want any institutions that might lead to favouring one group over another.”
Here, favouring one group over another = preferential treatment at the expense of another
Answer: C (Jacksonian)
Question 9: People should only gain benefits on the basis of what they actually achieve.
Solution: Keywords: should, gain benefits, what they actually achieve.
Now, the answer is found at the end of section H. Take a look at this line, “. .. . .to allow children the opportunities to make full use of the skills they have.”
Here, allow children the opportunities = people should only gain benefits, skills they have = what they actually achieve,
Answer: B (Jeffersonian)
Question 10: Variation in intelligence begins at birth.
Solution: Keywords: variation, intelligence, begins, birth.
Now, the answer can be traced in section G, in the very beginning. The writer says, “ . . .people are born with different levels of intelligence. .. . .”
Here, different levels = variation
Answer: A (Hamiltonian)
Question 11: The more intelligent people should be in positions of power.
Solution: Keywords: more intelligent people, positions of power.
Now, the answer for this question is found in lines 4-7 of Section G, “.. . seem to have shared this belief when they wrote about the emergence of a cognitive (high-IQ) elite, which eventually would have to take responsibility for the largely irresponsible masses of non-elite (low IQ) people who cannot take care of themselves.”
Here, cognitive (high-IQ) elite = more intelligent people, eventually would have to take responsibility = should be in positions of power
Answer: A (Hamiltonian)
Question 12: Everyone can develop the same abilities.
Solution: Keywords: everybody, develop, same abilities,
Now, the answer can be traced in the middle of Section I. “… . . people are essentially intersubstitutable except for specialized skills, all of which can be learned.”
Answer: C (Jacksonian)
Question 13: People of low intelligence are likely to lead uncontrolled lives.
Solution: Keywords: low intelligence, likely to, lead, uncontrolled lives.
Now, the last few lines of Section G give us the answer. First the writer says in lines 6-7, “ . . .for the largely irresponsible masses of non-elite (low-IQ) people who cannot take care of themselves.”
Then in the last lines the author mentions, “.. .Left to themselves, the unintelligent would create, as they always have created, a kind of chaos.”
Here, chaos means disorder which is the result of irresponsible people’s lifestyle.
Answer: A (Hamiltonian)
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